How to Do  PHILOSOPHY ESSAYS*

I.  Introduction

Thomas  Edison's  much  quoted  remark  that  invention  is   l%

inspiration   and   99%   perspiration  is  perhaps  a  case  of self-effacing understatement.   Nevertheless,  his  point,  when applied  to  the  matter  of writing philosophy essays, deserves attention.  No one can systematize or lay down rules that  will result in  inspiration  or  creativity. This  little  guide, however, is written with the conviction that a  large  share  of

the  burden  of the composition of an essay is almost mechanical and rules can be laid down such that, if they  are  followed,  a reasonably good result can be confidently predicted.

II.  Groundwork

a. First Thoughts

Let  us  start  with  a  couple  of  typical philosophy essay

topics: "Aristotle on Happiness" and "What is Justice in the Moral

Thought of Mill?"

l.  BEGIN  BY  GETTING  SOME  DEFINITIONS,  in   this   case, definitions of  "happiness"  and  "justice."

Start with a good dictionary.

2. WHAT ARE THE  ETYMOLOGICAL derivations of key philosophical  terms? What are the root metaphors on the basis of which the technical terms are constructed? What

do they have in common? What kind of things can be  "put together?" The point I am getting at is that you ought to

be  trying  to get at the conceptual presuppositions that underlie any philosophical problem. These usually  begin in ordinary language.

3.  Do  the  key  concepts  have  a  clear application to the world? That is, is there  any  difficulty in  deciding, given   the   concept   of   happiness,  about  instances  of happiness?  Is it clear to you what  would  count  as  an

instance of happiness or of justice in the context of morality? What  problems  are  raised  by  the application of these concepts to the world?

4.  Order  the  problems. This  point  is  crucial.After having discovered a nest of problems through your initial groundwork  you  should now ask yourself, "which problems require a solution  before  the  other  problems  can  be solved? What  is  basic and what depends on the basic?" For example, isn't it necessary to know  first what Aristotle understands to be the structure of the human soul before we can consider what happiness in the soul is?  Don’t we have to understand which is the more comprehensive notion, morality or justice, before we can say how they are related? Remember: Some problems  are  more basic than others. Order your questions.  It will save a lot of time.

b. Research

In the case of our essays in this course,  you need only concentrate on the primary readings. You  will  be looking  for  basically  three  things:  (1) definitions, (2) distinctions, and (3) arguments.

l.  Definitions.How   does   your   author   define key philosophical  terms?  If he offers no definitions in the text you are using, does he presume certain definitions? Write down the definitions which are explicit. Write out definitions you think are implicit.  Does the  failure  to define terms leave his arguments ambiguous?

2.  Distinctions.  How  does  the  author  "cut up" the world with his concepts? What  are  the  different  senses  in which  he  uses  words.   Many philosophical problems are greatly aided in their solution by distinguishing  senses

of words. To do this it will be useful to fill your head with  lots  of examples and ask how the relevant word or concept would cover these.  Make a list of different uses of a concept.  How are these uses  alike?   How  do  they differ?

3. Arguments.Yourmostimportantjob   is   to extract an argument from the text. All  arguments  have premises  and a conclusion. . The conclusion should be a statement of the author's position. The premises contain the  statements  of  the  evidence   leading   to   these conclusions.   Extract  these arguments. The backbone of your essay will be the examination  of  these  arguments. You  will  be using two standards for examination: (a) Is the argument valid, that is does  the  conclusion  follow logically  from  the  premises  (that  is,  assuming  the premises are true, does the conclusion then follow.)  (b) Are  the  premises true? Are they intended by the author to be self-evidently true or does he adduce evidence  for

them? Working from the basic argument you will begin to

hunt for hidden premises, alternative premises that would make an invalid argument valid, etc. All the  time  your eye  will  be  on the conclusion and the question: "Is it true?" Can he prove  it?   Can  I  prove  it?   Remember: Philosophy is mainly concerned with arguments.

III. Preparation of Essay

a. Theoutline.Amongthe   most   common   flaws in undergraduate essays are  lack  of  clarity  in  thought  and expression and lack of coherent organization.  Student essays tend  to  ramble  and  this  indicates  a mind at sea.  It is possible, however, to minimize these problems by employing  a

purely mechanical device.  Make an outline. Now I do not mean an  outline  of  the  form: I.  Introduction.  II. Argument,

III. Conclusion. This is too superficial and  consequently worthless. An  outline  should  be detailed and represent a logical progression of thought. There should be a heading  or sub-heading for every paragraph in the essay.  Nothing should be  put  into  the  essay that has not been justified in your

mind  beforehand  and  already  represented  in  the outline. Every paragraph in the essay should have a distinct place  in the  exposition  and/or  criticism of the arguments. The exposition  should  unfold  premise by premise, the criticism point by point.

b. The outline (Second Stage). The  creation  of  the  outline should  be guided by thought of what the topic requires, that is, given the topic, what are the orderly steps to  be  taken

in dealing with it?  In the second stage you will begin going through the outline point by point and thinking about what to say for each point. You will now discover  a  happy  result. Your  essay will be about 75% finished! The actual writing of the  essay will be almost anti-climactic.

The  main  work  of  your  essay--which  is  an  exercise  in philosophical  thinking and not the search for a stylish turn of a phrase--is in your head and not on paper. The paper  is just  a  record  of  your real work. The creation of a tight, critically justified outline will help eliminate  the  cotton candy  that many students use to pad their essays.  It is not

necessary to begin with a paragraph on the greatness of  your subject or the world-moving importance of your problem. There is  no  need  to  end with a stirring tribute to the glory of philosophy and the meaning of  life. These  are  superfluous.

You  are  writing  an  essay  for someone who has heard these platitudes  a  thousand  times  before. Their  addition  is extremely  irritating  to  most professors. Their absence is

bound to make a good impression.  Start with your substantive points.  End your essay when these are  completed.

Remember,   don't   try   to   do  everything  at  once.   Be systematic. Take your points one at  a  time. And  by  all means, do not worry about being too narrow. Your major worry will almost always be about being too superficial.

IV. Writing the Essay.

a. If  you  have  spent  adequate  time  on  the

outline, you should now be in a position to produce your essay. Having thought out all the major points beforehand,  you

can now give your complete attention to the

special problems of communicating these points.  One  overall principle  should guide you: clarity. Your writing should be

a window to your thinking. You will most likely be  able  to achieve  this  if you stick to straightforward English prose.

Every sentence should express one clear thought.  Grammar and syntax count.  Remember, there is nothing  childish  about  a short, clear, declarative sentence.  It is a good sentence if

it clearly and accurately reflects your thought when read.

b. Hints on Composition

i. Define the  key  philosophical  terms  you  introduce. Obviously you cannot define everything.   Nevertheless, when  you  use a philosophical term in your argument you should make the reader aware of the meaning.

ii. Purge your writing  of  all  jargon.   Jargon  comes  in two  varieties:  the  blatant and the subtle. They are equally obnoxious.  Some examples of the  first variety are:  "interpersonal," "meaningful" and "relevant." Some examples of the second are: "important," "in terms  of," and  "valid." The  use  of jargon words and phrases can only be avoided by careful scrutiny of every sentence of your essay.

iii. Use examples  and  counter-examples when possible. Nothing conveys  the thrust of an argument as well as a cleverly

chosen   example.Examples   illuminate   principles. Nothing conveys your argument against a position as well as a devastating counter-example.  Nothing  supports  an argument an impressively as the anticipation of possible counter-examples  to  the  argument  and  the answers to these.

iv. Remember  that  your  reader  is  not  inside your head.

Don't expect your reader to make  the  associations  and leaps  that are not explicitly laid out in the paper but which went on in your thinking.   In  philosophy  it  is almost impossible for your reasoning to be too explicit.

Remember:  Straightforward  sentences. Arguments.  No padding.

*Adapted from “Some Hints For Composing Philosophy Essays” by L. P. Gerson

Appendix 1

1. Introduction

1. 1 Broad  context in philosophy

1. 2 Contextualizing and narrowing the issue

1. 3 The issue

1.3.1. The issue

1.3. 2 either (a) how the reasoning of this paper will proceed with hints regarding conclusion(s), or

                    (b) an ordered series of questions that must be answer to deal with the issue, with

hints regarding the conclusion(s)

2. Body

2.1

2.2

2.3.

2.4.

2.6 Conclusions reached now explained as garnered from the previous steps in this section.

3. Conclusion (intentionally repetitive)

3.1. The issue solved or explained (corresponds to 1.3)

3.2. Conclusions recontextualized regarding the issue (corresponds to 1.2)

3.3. Conclusions and how they have broader ramifications in philosophy

(Optional: 3.4 speculative overview remarks)